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Linguistic diversity is complicated. It involves two main elements: a headcount of “languages”, plus variation and variability within and between them. In this article we show how language policy in Europe claims to protect diversity but falls short on these two measures. Our legal analysis examines the institutional politics of the European Union, details of accession, and institutionalisation of multilingualism. We describe the manifestation of a multilevel language hierarchy: working languages are topmost, then official languages, then non-official languages. This largely privileges national languages, principally English. Meanwhile allochthonous (‘immigrant’) languages are discounted, despite outnumbering autochthonous (‘indigenous’) languages. Our legal analysis therefore suggests an early stumble for linguistic diversity: even limited to a headcount of “languages”, most are neglected. Next, our sociolinguistic analysis examines the Council of Europe’s approach to protecting minority languages. We show how diversity can decline even among protected languages, using two case studies: Cornish, a young revival; and Welsh, an older, more established revival. The Cornish revival could only proceed after agreement on singular standardisation. Meanwhile the internal diversity of Welsh as declined significantly, fuelled by the normative reproduction of its standard form in education, and by sharpened social pressures against local dialects. Moreover, by comparing the EU and the Council of Europe, we aim for an overarching argument about “European language policy”. We conclude that linguistic diversity is neglected, through exclusion of most of the languages spoken in Europe, and pressures on language-internal diversity within protected languages. Linguistic diversity is something richer and more complex than the limited goals of existing policies; it transcends language boundaries, and may be damaged by planned intervention.
Technologies for the IoT have reached a high level of maturity, and a largescale deployment will soon be possible. For the IoT to become an economic success, easy access to all kinds of real-world information must be enabled. Assuming that not all services will be available for free, an IoT infrastructure should support access control, accounting, and billing. We analyze available access control and payment schemes for their potential as payment schemes in the IoT. In addition to security and privacy, we discuss suitability for direct client to sensor communication and efficiency.
We show shortcomings of existing protocols that need to be addressed by future research.
Reputation systems are useful to assess the trustworthiness of potential transaction partners, but also a potential threat to privacy since rating profiles reveal users’ preferences. Anonymous reputation systems resolve this issue, but make it difficult to assess the trustworthiness of a rating. We introduce a privacy-preserving reputation system that enables anonymous ratings while making sure that only authorized users can issue ratings. In addition, ratings can be endorsed by other users. A user who has received a pre-defined number of endorsements can prove this fact, and be rewarded e.g. by receiving a “Premium member” status. The system is based on advanced cryptographic primitives such as Chaum-Pedersen blind signatures, verifiable secret sharing and oblivious transfer.
The characteristics of creative educational interventions and the way they are implemented in the field often make their evaluation a challenging task. This article uses an exemplary intervention from a large-scale consumer education program on climate protection to present the design, method, and results of a two-step evaluation procedure which allows evaluators to cope with such a situation. Step 1 aims to answer the question of whether or not an intervention actually has the intended effects. Step 2 then assesses the factors that contribute to those effects. Thus, such a two-step evaluation yields information, not only on which interventions are effective and should therefore be maintained, but also on how they should be designed to achieve maximum effects.
Although the Council of Europe has been working in the area of administrative law for decades, the body of pan-European general principles of good administration developed by this organisation remains mostly uncharted. This paper attempts to help fill this academic gap by examining the scope and content of the pan-European principles of administrative law stemming from the Council of Europe, with a special emphasis on the principle of good administration. In doing so, the sources of administrative law of the Council of Europe are considered together with the mechanisms by which they penetrate and permeate domestic legal systems. This paper concludes that the work done by the Council of Europe in the administrative field has contributed to a process of harmonisation in its Member States’ domestic law, but that the exact scope thereof has yet to be uncovered and requires further research.
Administrative and Security Challenges of Germany's Refugee Crisis: an Explorative Assessment
(2017)